Introduction
As Christian theology in modern age has come to existence in vast different perspectives in different situations, nowadays, local theology emerged from the past four decades as recently challenging theology. However, local theology or contextual theology emerged now as very situational demanding theology—making much more emphasized the importance of local tradition and context. While the movement of indigenous theology began in India and China as early as the 1930s, the movement of contextual theologies sprouted from the 1950s to 1970s as the conscious effort of some third world theologians to fight against European imperialism that had existed sine the 16th century.[1]
What is Local Theology?
Local Theology is a complex process, which aware of contexts, of histories, or the role of experience, of the need to encounter the traditions of faith in other believing communities. In this regard, it is also obvious that contexts are complex, histories can be variously read, experience can be ambiguous, experience can be ambiguous, and the encounter in faith is often dimly understood. These factors can be seen as roots feeding for the development and growth of a local theology. The three principal roots beneath the growth of local theology are gospel, church, and culture.
“Gospel” here means the Good News of Jesus Christ and the salvation that God has wrought through him. It refers to the living presence of the saving Lord that is the foundation of the community, the spirit of the risen Lord guiding that community, the prophetic Spirit challenging the culture and the larger church.
“The Church” is a complex of those cultural patterns in which the Gospel has taken on flesh, at once enmeshed in the local situation, extending through communities in our own time and in the past, and reaching out to the eschatological realization of the fullness of God’s reign. “Culture” is the concrete context in which this happens. It represents a way of life for a given time and place, replete with values, symbols, and meanings, reaching out hopes and dreams, often struggling for a better world. Thus, Local Theology takes the dynamic interaction of all three of these roots—gospel, church, culture. Therefore, Local Theology is defined as the dynamic interaction among gospel, church, and culture.
Since local theologies come out of particular local contexts, Local Theology can be called “Contextual Theology.” As Context is very important in determining the meaning of symbols,[2] it is also equally important in interpreting the meaning of words—language. Contextualization has to do with how we assess the peculiarity of third world contexts. Contextualization takes into account the process of secularity, technology, and the struggle for human justice, which characterize the historical moment of nations in the Third World.
Authentic contextualization is always prophetic, arising always out of a genuine encounter between God’s Word and His world, and moves toward the purpose of challenging and changing the situation through rootedness in and commitment to a given historical moment.[3]
George W. Peters says, “Contextualization properly applied means to discover the legitimate implications of the gospel in a given situation...” Harvie Conn writes that contextualization is “the process of conscientization of the whole people of God to the hermeneutical claims of the gospel.”[4]
Applying Local Theology
The sensitivity to the community-based nature of theology, rooted in concrete circumstances, is a hallmark of local theology. Questions about the ascertaining of Christian identity, the normativeness of the Scriptures and subsequent Christian history, issues of orthodoxy—all must be faced in some theory of tradition, in order to test, affirm, and challenge the authenticity of the local church’s response.
Gospel and church find themselves interacting within culture, the third root feeding into local theology. More and more, Local Theology is pointing the way to return to theology as an occasional enterprise, that is, one dictated by circumstances and immediate needs rather than the need for system-building.
The Study of Culture We can attribute culture as the core course of constructing local theology. In ideal circumstances the process of constructing local theologies begins with a study of the culture. This method grows out of two considerations.
First, “to avoid the continuance of paternalistic history” in which outsiders, barely familiar with a culture, would make decisions about adaptation and what would be “best” for a local culture.
Second, “to maintain the desired openness and sensitivity to a local situation.” It is to say that the prevailing mode of evangelization and church development should be one of finding Christ in the situation rather than bringing Christ into the situation [p. 39].
Listening to culture or respecting culture is the first need in constructing local theologies. The primary interacting questions are to be concerned. First, “hearing Christ in a culture,” second, “how does one grow in understanding of a foreign culture,” third, “how can one reflect fruitfully on one’s own culture,” and fourth, “how does a community become fertile ground for a local theology.”
As cultural analysis for theology some important characteristics can be drawn as any approach to culture must be: 1) holistic, 2) able to address the forces that shape identity in a culture, 3) able to address the problem of social change.
Semiotic study (the study of signs) of culture is major important work in constructing local theologies. Semiotics has concerned itself with a wide variety of cultural manifestations, from animal communication, to art, folklore, religion, economics, and attempts at description of larger cultural systems.
Why, and in what ways, is a semiotic study of culture suited for constructing local theologies? There are a number of reasons.
1) Its interdisciplinary approach and its concern for all dimensions of cultures, both verbal and nonverbal, both empirical and non-empirical, represent the kind of holism that is important when it comes to listening to a culture. It allows study of the so-called high cultural elements (art, poetry, music, religious belief) and the so-called popular elements (customs superstitions), and other elements of the cultural systems (social organization, economic and political organization) in a way that allows them to be seen as interlocking and interdependent.
2) Its concern for observation of the various sign systems in a culture, and their configuration, allows for a closer look at how the identity of the culture and the identity of members of the culture are constituted.
3) The concern for patterns of change is very strong in semiotics. Trying to define trajectories of change, the limits of such trajectories in relation to the problems of identity, and the mechanisms whereby cultures cope with chaos and change are all of central importance in the investigation.
Church Traditions as Local Theologies Theology and Its Context
Theology has often been defined as faith seeking understanding. Local theologies make us keenly aware that “understanding” itself is deeply colored by cultural context. How human knowledge is experienced, although communicable across cultural boundaries, is nonetheless largely shaped by local circumstances.
The experience of the cultural rootedness of theology rebounds again on a local community when it engages the church tradition, entering into that dialogue to test, affirm, and challenge its own understanding of the gospel. To construct local theologies three ways are commonly followed.
(1) Reconstructing the witnesses of the New Testament to form an ideal type, the New Testament church. E.g. the New Testament churches themselves represent different cultural and social circumstances.
(2) Dealing with the great recurring themes in theology from a local perspective. E.g. The Western doctrine of original sin does not take on the same form or the same significance in Orthodox theology.
(3) Realizing that the great theologies of East and West have drawn upon philosophical systems elaborated in their respective cultures to frame their questions and answers. E.g. it assumes one set of cultural relations for the expression of knowledge to be valid for all cultures at all times. [76-77]
To summarize: the approach to the church tradition in the development of local theologies means understanding not only how the questions and the content that are in the tradition receive their shape, but also the cultural conditioning of the very paradigms of thought themselves.
Perhaps theology in African villages could best be expressed in proverbs rather than in Banhu philosophy. Perhaps theology could be done in poetry in Japan; or in the form of sutra and commentary in South Asia. Melanesian theology might be done in songs and oratory, and United States black theology in the dialogue of gospel preaching. We need to locate those paradigms of thought in a culture which shape meaning and affirm it in the culture.
Sociology of Theology
Sociology of theology tries to see how particular forms of thought might be related to particular cultural conditions. Four forms of theological expression are:
1) Theology as variations on a sacred text,
2) Theology as Wisdom,
3) Theology as sure knowledge, and
4) Theology as praxis.
Number 2-4 are worthy to mention. One of the predominant forms of theology in Christianity, as well as in other great literate traditions, has been theology as wisdom. In Christianity it is identified especially with the patristic period, with the theological tradition in the East down to the present, with the Augustinian heritage in the West, and with the theology growing out of the spiritual and mystical traditions. [85]
What implications do these cultural conditions suggest for the development of local theologies?
1) A wisdom theology will be a likely development in those cultures that have maintained their important rites of passage. It provides a way to bring together the wisdom of the ancestors with the wisdom of Christ, the first ancestor in faith.
2) Where people prize wisdom above learning and wealth, wisdom theology becomes the natural vehicle for their expression in faith.
3) Cultures placing great prize on a unified view of the world, often sacrificing many other things to maintain it, seek the way of wisdom. In quests for new spiritualities in the West, this kind of theology is reasserting itself: the quest for unity in self and society as the way to God, the source of all unity.
4) Wisdom theology models have maintained the most fruitful for catechesis.
5) Wisdom theology functions best where a unity in world-view is possible. [86,87]
Theology as sure knowledge is probably the most common form of theology in Roman Catholicism and mainline Protestantism in the West today. It tries to give a critical, relational account of faith, using the tools of a discipline that can offer the most exact human reason, but also now includes disciplines in the social sciences and to some extent in the natural sciences. Throughout the centuries it has dominated the scene—from the 12th into the 20th century. [87]
What are some implications of Theology as sure knowledge in developing local theologies?
1) It functions best in two environments: the highly specialized and differentiated situations in urban economies, and wherever there is a plurality of competing world-views. When either of these situations prevails, it is the best tool for theological reflection and articulation of Christian experience.
2) Because of its emphasis on precision and clarity, it has special capacities for cross-cultural communication.
3) Analysis and explanation are the great strengths of it from a methodological point of view. [90]
Theology as Praxis has come to the fore more recently as a major form of theological reflection. As understood today, praxis is the ensemble of social relationships that include and determine the structures of social consciousness. Thus thought and theory are considered sets of relations within the larger network of social relationships. [91]
What are the tasks of a Theology as praxis? Three can be mentioned specifically:
1) It is to help disentangle true consciousness from false consciousness.
2) It has to be concerned with the ongoing reflection upon action.
3) It is concerned with the motivation to sustain the transformative praxis. [92]
What implications and possibilities does this form of theological reflection have for developing local theologies? Its emphasis on social analysis and its emphasis on social transformation have already made this kind of theology widely used in communities struggling in the midst of oppression. It is particularly helpful as a way of recovering a world-view or way of life that has been blocked by false consciousness on a large scale. [93]
Furthermore, it is worthy to mention more on the inevitability of culture in constructing local theologies in religious existence. What is a cultural critique of theology and religious studies? Paul Tillich, will say that it is about questioning and answering, the correlation of the critical questions arising from the contemporary cultural situation of the truth as revealed through the traditions and interpretations of Christianity. According to Catholic theologian Gustavo Guterriez, theology would remain a colonial tool unless it shaked its imperialistic dress and addressed the liberation of the poor and the oppressed.[5] From the perspective of local theology it is evident that culture has always been an integral part of theology.
The Tradition as a Series of Local Theologies
Steven B. Bevan wrote there are three sources of Theology: Scripture, tradition, and present human experience—or context.[6] These three are inextricably related elements in the process of constructing local theologies. To do a genuine local theology, there is a need of sincere recognition that cultural tradition firmly adopted and rooted in the local context play important role.
Above, in Theology of Sociology, we have seen tradition in a different way, by seeing it as a series of local theologies, closely wedded to and responding to different cultural conditions. The relations between these forms and cultural conditions were looked at, and implications for the development of local theologies were drawn out. In summary, such an investigation was meant:
- To attune our ears to the different kinds of theology being undertaken today. This is meant to encourage reading any attempt at local theology in a concrete way: What is the relation of the form to the local cultural condition?
- To free us from thinking that theology as sure knowledge is the sole, legitimate form of “real” theology. It is a very important form, but still one form among several, and in many instances unsuited to the task at hand.
- To allow local cultural and religious forms to dialogue more easily with the church tradition, thereby offering a better chance of maintaining a genuine catholicity in a local church’s expression of its faith. [93-95]
How Culture helps in constructing Local theologies?
What do cultural conditions suggest about developing local theologies? What do they say about matching forms of expression with cultural conditions? We may summarize some of what they suggest as follows.
- In cultures that still have a strong oral focus, commentaries, narratives, and anthologies may be the most likely forms of theology. Instead of trying to write systematic treaties, many of the cultures of Africa, Latin America and Oceania should be trying to write Bible commentaries, as indeed some of them are.
- The natural forms of handing on the central messages of the culture—proverbs, old stories, and the like—are therefore legitimate vehicles for the developing of local theologies. There is ample precedent for this in the Christian tradition as well as in other traditions.
- Understanding the dynamics of transmitting messages in oral cultures helps to situate the kind of theology emerging as commentary, story, and anthology.
Popular and Official Religion
A popular religious system often exists prior to the development of a local theology in a culture and becomes an additional factor with which a local theology has to deal. It is also real that the popular that develops in a culture reflects a kind of local theology. It is, most obviously for this reason, the study of existing popular and official religion religions need to deal with in constructing local theologies.
The term “Popular religion” is derives from the use of the adjective “popular”—literally it means “of a people” and can be used to mean of all people in general, or of one class of people (usually the poor, majority class) in particular. In Latin America contexts, it generally refers to the poor, majority class. When used in North American contexts, it refers to the majority, middle class.
In the discussion of popular religion today, a wide range of phenomena is treated under the heading of popular religion. Some examples include: the religious activity of the illiterate majority in medieval and early modern Europe; the imported Iberian popular religion that has taken root in Latin America and the Philippines; the amalgams of African and European popular religion found in the Caribbean and in Brazil; the amalgams of African and European religion found in the African Independent Churches; the amalgams of Buddhist, Shinto, Confucian, and Christian elements in the new religions in Japan; United States civil religion; the dual religious systems among Native Americans in both North and South America, where the two systems are practiced side by side; the dual religious systems in sub-Saharan Africa, where the Christian religious system is returned to in times of crisis. All these religions/beliefs could be regarded in a sense of local theologies.
Popular religion is sometimes contrasted with official religion. If we take official religion to be those prescribed beliefs and norms of an institution promulgated and monitored by a group of religious specialists, then popular religion becomes those patterns of behavior and belief that somehow escape the control of the institutional specialists, existing alongside the efforts at control of these specialists.
Interest in popular religion is the importance for developing local theologies. Popular religion tells us something of the role of religion in social change and in the continuing process of shaping identity in a particular cultural setting. Popular religion tells us something also of the role of religion in social change and in the continuing process of shaping identity in a particular cultural setting. To develop an adequate local theology one must listen to the religious responses already present in the culture.
A second reason for interest in popular religion is from the perspective of local theology. It is evident that culture has always been an integral part of theology. Culture play inseparable important role in constructing local theologies. What do cultural conditions suggest about developing local theologies? What do they say about matching forms of expression with cultural conditions? We may summarize some of what they suggest as follows.
- In cultures that still have a strong oral focus, commentaries, narratives, and anthologies may be the most likely forms of theology. Instead of trying to write systematic treaties, many of the cultures of Africa, Latin America and Oceania should be trying to write Bible commentaries, as indeed some of them are.
- The natural forms of handing on the central messages of the culture—proverbs, old stories, and the like—are therefore legitimate vehicles for the developing of local theologies. There is ample precedent for this in the Christian tradition as well as in other traditions.
- Understanding the dynamics of transmitting messages in oral cultures helps to situate the kind of theology emerging as commentary, story, and anthology. [84]
Syncretism and Dual Religious Systems
Syncretism and Dual Religious System are two kinds of manifestations of religious belief and activity that also need to be looked at for themselves and how hey affect the development of local theologies.
Syncretism is the mixing of elements of two religious systems to the point where at least one, if not both, of the systems loses basic structure and identity. Though Christian literature has always seen syncretism in a negative stance, this has been the important issues that Christianity encountered in new cultural settings since 7th century onwards. The Rite Controversy in China has become a big issue in the 20th century. Most recently shifts in local theology perspectives and its development syncretism has become a fresh issue in a new way.
There are three kinds of syncretism. The first type is a mixed ritual and beliefs between Christianity and West African religions of the former slaves. Christian deity and saints are amalgamated into the Yoruba or Ibo pantheons and communicated with along the lines of African ritual. The second type blends Christian and non-Christian elements, but uses the framework of Christianity for its organizations. Independent Churches in Africa are to see with this kind. E.g. Rastafarians and Melanesian movements are typical of this kind of syncretism who borrow heavily Christian symbolism and belief but separated themselves from the Christianity they received. The third kind of syncretism is highly selective in its appropriation of Christian elements. E.g. some of the New Religions in Japan have a great veneration for Jesus. In one particular cult Jesus shares an altar with Muhammad and the Buddha. In a similar manner Christian marriage ceremonies have become very popular in Japan.
The problem of dual systems has been known to local church leaders for a long time and has come to the attention of anthropologists more recently. Theologically there has not been much reflection on the phenomenon. In dual systems a people follows the religious practices of two distinct systems. The two systems are kept discrete; they can operate side by side. Sometimes one system is followed more faithfully than the other; in other instances the two systems may be followed almost equally.
There are also three kinds of dual systems. The first kind is, Christianity and another tradition operate side by side. This is a common phenomenon among many Native American groups in North and South America. E.g. in Tewa community, when someone dies, the Christian (Catholic) funeral is held first and the Tewa priest takes over for the next ceremony. In the second kind of dual system, Christianity is practiced in its integrity, and selected elements from another system are also practiced. E.g. Christians in rural West Africa not only pray to the Christian deity, but also to their local deities as well. The third kind is “double belonging.” This occurs in Asia, where a particular religious tradition and citizenship in a nation are seen as inextricably bound up. E.g. can one really be Burmese or Thai without being Buddhist? Or Taiwanese without being Taoist? Or Japanese without being Shinto?
The above investigation shows that both Syncretism and Dual religious system are the real existing and deeply rooted religious beliefs and practices even within Christianity itself. The fact is clear that both come out of firmly and deeply rooted cultural elements in which the local people are firmly bound up. Dealing with Syncretism and Dual religious systems, the following considerations (principles) are helpful in constructing local theologies.
- Good evangelization will also bring about culture change. If the message of the gospel is genuinely heard in the local culture, that message must find a place among the most fundamental change in codes, signs, and the entire system. Christ can be found in culture, but making that discovery explicit will have consequences for the culture.
- Syncretism and dual systems are ultimately not about theology, but about the entirety of the religious sign system.
- “Religion” means varying from culture to culture.
In the midst of such kind increasing beliefs and practices which are now appraised and valued more and more by recent indigenous people, local theologians need to take a good stand/view in their work. How is a local church to deal with these issues (i.e., both syncretism and dual religious systems)? What do they tell us about Christianity and what they reflect about Christian traditions are the inevitable concerns in constructing local theologies nowadays.
REFERENCE
Bevans, Stenphen B., Models of Contextual Theology, Revised &Expanded ed. Manila, Philippines: Logos Publications, Inc., 2003.
Hesselgrave, David J., Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally: An Introduction to Missionary Communication, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1991.
Robert J. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1985.
Wong, Angela Wai Ching, “Between Religious Studies and Cultural Studies: An Intellectual Reflection” in Quest: An Interdisciplinary Journal for Asian Christian Scholars, Vol. 5, No. 1, June 2006, 27-36.
ENDNOTE
[1]Angela Wai Ching Wong,“Between Religious Studies and Cultural Studies: An Intellectual Reflection” in Quest: An Interdisciplinary Journal for Asian Christian Scholars, Vol. 5, No. 1, June 2006,27.
[2] David J. Hesselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally: An Introduction to Missionary Communication, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1991), p. 131.
[3] Ibid., p. 135.
[4] Ibid., pp. 136-137.
[5] Angela Wai Ching Wong, p. 27.
[6] Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, Revised &Expanded ed. (Manila, Philippines: Logos Publications, Inc., 2003), 4.